Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), Sites, Artefacts, Society, Religion

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, is one of the world’s earliest urban civilizations, flourishing around 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE. It was primarily located in the northwestern regions of South Asia, covering parts of modern-day Pakistan and northwest India. The civilization is renowned for its urban planning, advanced drainage systems, craft technology, and trade networks, which highlight the sophistication of its society.

The IVC is contemporary with other early civilizations such as Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, and it played a crucial role in shaping South Asia’s cultural and economic history.

Excavation of the Indus Valley Civilization

The excavation of IVC started in the 1920s with archaeologists like R.D. Banerji and John Marshall leading the efforts. Harappa was the first major site discovered, followed by Mohenjo-Daro and several others. Excavations revealed well-planned streets, residential areas, granaries, and public baths, showing the urban sophistication of the IVC.

Major Findings from Excavations:

• Fortified cities with citadels and granaries.
• Residential complexes with advanced drainage.
• Artefacts like seals, pottery, and tools indicate social and economic life.

Sites of the Indus Valley Civilization

The IVC had several major urban centers spread across the Indus basin. Each site reveals unique features, contributing to our understanding of the civilization’s urban, cultural, and economic life.

Geographical Extent of the Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, covered a vast area spread across present-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. Its boundaries stretched from Sutkagendor near the Makran Coast (Balochistan, Pakistan) in the west to Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, India) in the east, and from Manda (Jammu & Kashmir, India) in the north to Daimabad (Maharashtra, India) in the south. 

The civilization mainly flourished along the Indus River and its tributaries, but its influence extended far beyond river valleys, covering approximately 1.3 million sq. km, making it one of the largest civilizations of the ancient world. Important cities like Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Kalibangan, Dholavira, and Rakhigarhi highlight the cultural and economic richness of this civilization.

Society and Political Structure

The Harappan society was highly organized with clear signs of social and administrative order. Although no evidence of kings or palaces exists, their urban planning suggests a centralized governance system managing trade, resources, and urban infrastructure. 

• Urban planning with streets, drainage, and residential zones.
• Social stratification based on occupation or wealth.
• Governance likely involved city councils or assemblies rather than monarchy.
• Evidence suggests minimal warfare, indicating a peaceful society. 

Craft and Technology

IVC was renowned for its advanced craftsmanship and technology. People were skilled in metallurgy, pottery, bead-making, and weaving, reflecting their high level of expertise in both functional and decorative arts.

• Pottery: Wheel-made, standardized, and painted.
• Metallurgy: Tools and ornaments from bronze, copper, and tin.
• Bead-making: Semi-precious stones used in jewelry.
• Textiles: Evidence from figurines and impressions of cloth.
• Urban engineering: Drainage, wells, and water reservoirs.

Artefacts of Indus Valley Civilization

Artefacts from IVC provide insight into daily life, trade, and religious practices. They reflect the cultural richness and technological advancement of the civilization. 

Script of the Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus script is a pictographic writing system used for administrative and possibly ritual purposes. Despite many attempts, the script remains undeciphered, leaving much of IVC’s language and literature a mystery.

Features of the Script:

• About 400-600 unique symbols.
• Found mainly on seals, pottery, and tablets.
• Likely used for trade, governance, or ritual purposes.

Religion

Religion in the IVC appears to have been polytheistic and closely tied to nature, fertility, and daily life. Artefacts suggest worship of Mother Goddess, animals, and possibly proto-Shiva figures.

Religious Practices and Symbols:

• Mother Goddess figurines representing fertility.
• Animal motifs on seals, especially bulls and elephants.
• Fire altars suggesting ritualistic practices.
• Possible early worship of Shiva (Pashupati).

Trade & Commerce of Indus Valley Civilization

Trade was integral to IVC’s economy, both internally and with foreign regions like Mesopotamia. They developed standardized weights and measures to facilitate trade and had a thriving maritime economy.

Trade Highlights:

• Internal trade using standardized weights and currency substitutes.
• External trade with Mesopotamia, Persia, and Arabian regions.
• Dockyard at Lothal indicates advanced maritime trade.
• Agriculture-based economy supporting trade in grains, crafts, and luxury items.

Reasons Behind the Decline of Indus Valley Civilization

The decline of IVC around 1900 BCE was due to multiple environmental, economic, and social factors. Cities were gradually abandoned, and the population dispersed.

Possible Reasons:

• Climate change: Decline in monsoon rains affecting agriculture.
• Tectonic activity: Floods or shifts in river courses.
• Economic decline: Reduction in trade with foreign regions.
• Social changes: Migration and possible Aryan settlement.